Zionism in Africa

The term "Zionism" has several meanings, and its connection to Africa is multifaceted. Generally, Zionism refers to the Jewish national movement that aims to establish and maintain a Jewish state in the Land of Israel. However, in the African context, the concept of "African Zionism" also exists – a religious movement that combines Christianity with traditional African beliefs. Zionism is a Jewish national movement that originated at the end of the 19th century. It arose in response to growing antisemitism and persecution, especially in Eastern Europe. The term derives from "Zion," the biblical name for a hill in Jerusalem that later came to represent the Promised Land. Theodor Herzl is considered the main initiator; he convened the First Zionist Congress in 1897. Theodor Herzl was an Austro-Hungarian journalist and writer, considered the founder of political Zionism. Born in Budapest in 1860 and raised in Vienna, he was inspired by antisemitism, particularly the Dreyfus Affair, to conceive of a Jewish state. This was a political and legal scandal in France that deeply divided the Third Republic from 1894 to 1906 and is primarily known as a symbol of antisemitism, miscarriages of justice, and public intellectual debate. What was it all about? In December 1894, the Jewish artillery captain Alfred Dreyfus was convicted of treason by a French military court for allegedly passing military secrets to the German embassy in Paris. Crucial to the case was a handwritten memorandum ("le bordereau"), the origin of which was later hotly contested. Dreyfus was convicted in a secret, military-controlled trial without having access to all the evidence. He was disgraced (publicly degraded in the Place de l'École militaire), sentenced to life imprisonment on Devil's Island (Île du Diable) in French Guiana, and held there under harsh conditions. The affair brought antisemitism to the heart of bourgeois society: Dreyfus's Jewish heritage was systematically exploited as "proof" of his alleged disloyalty. Newspapers and sections of the military spread antisemitic propaganda and portrayed the "Jewish conspiracy" as a threat to the Republic. From 1896 onwards, the theory of miscarriages of justice gained traction, primarily through the work of the officer-investigator Georges Picquart, who uncovered evidence pointing to another culprit (Major Esterházy) and was subsequently discredited and imprisoned. The public debate ignited when Émile Zola published the open letter "J'accuse…!" (I accuse…!) in 1898, accusing high-ranking members of the army and judiciary of a cover-up and judicial murder. Society polarized between the "Dreyfusards" (including Zola, Clemenceau, Weber, and later the politician Edgar Quinet) and the anti-Dreyfusards (sections of the military, the conservative press, and nationalist circles). The affair affected the very structure of the Republic: it weakened the prestige of the army, promoted the separation of church and state (secularism), and strengthened the republican left. In 1899, a second trial took place in Rennes, in which Dreyfus was again found guilty but received only a symbolic punishment. It was not until 1906 that the French Court of Cassation (the court of revision) finally overturned the verdict and fully rehabilitated Dreyfus legally. He was reinstated in the army in 1906 and later promoted to major. The Dreyfus Affair is considered one of the early examples of how the public, media, and intellectuals can politically disrupt an arbitrary legal measure. It is also seen as a precursor to the power of antisemitism in modern democracies and to the role of the rule of law in authoritarian structures. Herzl studied law, worked as the features editor of the Neue Freie Presse, and was initially assimilated. From 1895 onward, he became radicalized in his opposition to the ongoing discrimination against Jews in Europe. In 1896 he published "The Jewish State," a pamphlet advocating the necessity of a sovereign Jewish state as the solution to the "Jewish Question." In 1897 he organized the First Zionist Congress in Basel, founded the Zionist organizations, and the newspaper "Die Welt." Herzl died young in 1904, but his vision paved the way for the founding of Israel in 1948. His motto, "If you will it, it is not a fairy tale," continues to shape the movement to this day. The core objective was the return of Jews from the Diaspora to their historical homeland between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River, and the establishment of their own state. This culminated in the founding of the State of Israel in 1948. After the First World War and the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, Palestine fell under British mandate (according to a League of Nations resolution of 1920). During this time, Jewish immigration to Palestine increased, leading to conflicts with the local Arab population. The State of Israel was proclaimed on May 14, 1948. This event was the result of a long process involving the Zionist movement, the UN partition of Palestine, and complex political and historical circumstances. Early settlements from the late 19th century onward led to conflicts with the Arab population. Today, Zionism is often understood as an ideology for the preservation and defense of Israel. The Holocaust was a pivotal event. After the Second World War and the atrocities of Nazi persecution, the desire for a Jewish state intensified considerably. In November 1947, the UN General Assembly adopted Resolution 181 (II), which provided for the partition of Palestine into two states – a Jewish and an Arab state. Jerusalem was to be placed under international administration. The resolution was supported by 33 states, including the United States, the USSR, and France; 13 states, including all the Arab countries, voted against it; and 10 states, including Great Britain, abstained. The British Mandate over Palestine was to end on May 14, 1948. At 4:00 PM that day, David Ben-Gurion (who would later become Israel's first Prime Minister) read Israel's Declaration of Independence in the museum hall in Tel Aviv. The document proclaimed the establishment of a Jewish state and guaranteed equal rights for all citizens, including freedom of religion, language, education, and culture. It also expressed hope for peace with neighboring states. The proclamation of the State of Israel provoked an immediate military response from the Arab countries. On the night of May 14-15, 1948, the armies of Egypt, Transjordan (later Jordan), Syria, Iraq, and Lebanon invaded Palestine to destroy the new Jewish state. This conflict is known as the First Arab-Israeli War or the Israeli War of Independence. The Arabs perceived the founding of Israel as a "Nakba" (catastrophe). During the war, approximately 700,000 Palestinians were forced to flee. The war ended in January 1949 with the signing of a series of armistice agreements (with Egypt in February, with Lebanon in March, with Transjordan in April, and with Syria in July), brokered by the United Nations. Israel emerged victorious from the conflict and expanded its territory beyond the borders established by the UN resolution. In the first three years after the founding of the state, approximately 600,000 Jews from Europe arrived in Israel. The founding of Israel marked the beginning of a long Arab-Israeli conflict that continues to this day. The Israeli Declaration of Independence of 1948 was thus the culmination of years of Zionist efforts, a UN resolution, and the immediate pretext for a military confrontation with the Arab states. There have been several conflicts since 1948. The Palestine War (1948–1949) began after Israel's declaration of independence and the invasion of Arab armies; it led to the expulsion of approximately 700,000 Palestinians (Nakba) and armistice agreements in which Israel conquered territories. The Suez Crisis (1956), which began when Israel, Great Britain and France attacked Egypt to secure the Suez Canal and shipping; ended with international pressure and withdrawal. The Six-Day War (1967) began as a preemptive strike by Israel against Egypt, Syria, and Jordan; Israel occupied Sinai, Gaza Strip, West Bank, and Golan Heights; Arab states adopted the "three no" resolution of Khartoum. The Yom Kippur War (1973) began as a surprise attack by Egypt and Syria; it led to peace talks and the Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty in 1979. Other conflicts included the Lebanon Wars (1982, 2006), the Intifadas and the current Gaza War with Hamas since 2023. The conflicts arose from the failure of the 1947 UN Partition Plan, Arab rejection of Israel, and repeated blockades and invasions. The consequences include ongoing occupation, refugee problems, and peace initiatives such as the Oslo Accords, which ultimately failed. Jewish Zionism and Africa. The relationship between Zionism (in the classical sense) and Africa is complex. In the 1950s and 1960s, Israel actively cooperated with many African countries that had recently gained their independence from colonial powers. Israel positioned itself as an ally of the "liberated peoples," which helped to strengthen its influence at the UN. The 1960s are considered the "golden age" of Israeli-African relations: Israel had 33 ambassadors in Africa, and its development aid to the continent exceeded that of many OECD countries. Israel currently has the following embassies in Africa. Angola – Luanda; Egypt – Cairo; Ethiopia – Addis Ababa; Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire) – Abidjan; Ghana – Accra; Cameroon – Yaounde (Yaoundé); Kenya – Nairobi; Nigeria – Abuja; Rwanda – Kigali; Senegal – Dakar; South Africa – Pretoria In some of the embassies mentioned, representation for other African countries is also accredited “in conjunction with competition”, e.g. Kenya for Uganda, Tanzania, Malawi and Seychelles. In addition, there are smaller representations or countries with diplomatic relations that do not have their own Israeli embassy (e.g., through agreements with other embassies). Relations deteriorated after the Six-Day War of 1967. Many African countries broke off diplomatic relations with Israel, as they viewed it as a colonial power, particularly after the occupation of the Sinai and the West Bank. In the 1970s, Israel deepened its relations with the apartheid regime in South Africa, despite publicly condemning its policies. This cooperation included military and, according to some sources, nuclear projects. This drew criticism from international organizations, including the United Nations. In the 2000s, Israel made efforts to restore relations with Africa. In 2021, the country was granted observer status in the African Union (AU), although this decision was challenged by some countries, such as South Africa and Algeria. The Palestinian question remains a key factor in current relations. Many African countries, especially those with historical ties to the struggle against colonialism (such as South Africa), criticize Israel for its policies toward Palestine. South Africa, in particular, has filed cases against Israel at the International Court of Justice, drawing parallels to its own experiences in the fight against apartheid. In December 2023, South Africa filed a lawsuit against Israel at the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in The Hague. This step is part of ongoing proceedings under the UN Genocide Convention. The core of the lawsuit is that South Africa accuses Israel of violating the Genocide Convention through its military operations in the Gaza Strip, thus potentially committing genocide against Palestinians. The lawsuit is based on Israeli operations since October 7, 2023, as well as statements by politicians that are intended to demonstrate an "intent" to destroy a group. South Africa applied for, among other things: Finding that Israel is violating the Genocide Convention. Temporary measures to halt military action in and against the Gaza Strip in order to protect civilians and allow humanitarian aid to arrive. The ICJ has already ordered several interim measures, including a call for Israel to halt a military offensive in Rafah and to open more border crossings for aid deliveries. Israel vehemently rejects the accusations and describes the lawsuit as defamation under international law. South Africa, on the other hand, argues that the proceedings are a safeguard for the international legal order and are not intended to justify the Hamas attacks of October 7, 2023, but rather to examine possible violations of international law. Israel has not officially complied with the ICJ's order, but has continued military operations in Gaza – for example in Rafah – and has not halted its military offensive, even though the ICJ had imposed new, stricter measures. Security and foreign policy officials claim that Israel is acting in self-defense against Hamas and reject the genocide allegations as "false and repulsive"; at the same time, they assert that they are upholding ethical and legal standards. In terms of content, Israel is emphasizing compliance with humanitarian corridors and evacuation appeals, but refuses to cease hostilities as demanded by the ICJ or to substantially change its military strategy in the Gaza Strip. Israel has not implemented the ICJ's call in practice, but has maintained its military operations under the guise of self-defense and has only implemented the measures selectively or rhetorically. However, some African countries continue to maintain relations with Israel or are normalizing them. For example, Morocco and Sudan established diplomatic relations with Israel under the 2020 Abraham Accords. African Zionism African Zionism is a religious movement prevalent in South Africa and neighboring countries (Eswatini, Mozambique, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia). It originated in the early 20th century and combines elements of Christianity with traditional African beliefs, healing through prayer, and water baptism. A significant organization within this movement is the Church of Zion. With 15-18 million followers, it is the largest religious movement in the region. In Eswatini, Zionism is the predominant religion (about 40% of the population identify as Zionists); this includes practices such as wearing white robes and carrying staffs, as well as pilgrimages to holy sites (such as mountains, which are considered cult centers); it influenced the development of Afro-Christian music (Gospel). African Zionism arose as a reaction to the dominance of European missions and the desire for an independent African-Christian identity. In the African context, the term "Zionism" can therefore refer to both an international Jewish movement and a local religious phenomenon. Both aspects have a complex history and shape current relationships and identities on the continent.